Introduction

Since Charting Progress was published in 2005, the world’s governments – under the umbrella of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) – have been trying to agree on a framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions that will succeed the Kyoto protocol. Although the UN Climate meeting held in Copenhagen in December 2009 did not result in a new protocol, the parties agreed in principle to try to limit the global temperature increase to 2 °C, which has long been the EU target. The EU also reiterated its commitment to cutting greenhouse gas emissions by 20% by 2020 relative to 1990 baseline levels.

To limit temperature rise to less than 2 °C will require an extremely determined, co­ordinated effort to stabilise emission levels in the immediate future followed by a sustained and dramatic reduction. Even if we achieve the EU target, the global warming we are already committed to will lead to serious climate change impacts to which countries worldwide will need to adapt.

Marine renewables

The UK has some of the highest levels of renewable energy resources in the world. These include wind, wave (mostly on the west coast), tidal stream (focussed inshore around headlands), and tidal range. The development type that has advanced the furthest in terms of installation and operation is offshore wind farms.

In 2008, renewable energy sources supplied 2.25% of the UK’s energy; to meet a binding target for 20% of the EU’s energy consumption to come from renewable sources by 2020, the UK has committed to increase its share of renewables to 15% by then. While there is as yet no blueprint for how much each sector will contribute to this 2020 target, an illustrative breakdown published by the Department of

Energy and Climate Change (DECC) suggests that marine renewables could participate significantly through offshore wind (19%), tidal stream (2%), tidal range (1%) and wave (<1%). Wave and tidal stream energy sources have the potential to make a significant contribution to longer-term (2020–2050) energy and climate change goals by providing up to 20% of our electricity needs.

The resources available to tidal range technologies are primarily focused in a limited number of locations, including the Severn Estuary, Liverpool and Morecambe Bays, the Solway Firth, the Wash, the Duddon, the Wyre and the Conway.

Pelamis Wave Energy Converter at the European Marine Energy Centre in Orkney

© Pelamis Wave Power

Shipping

Estimates from the International Maritime Organization (IMO) suggest that international and domestic shipping contributed 3.3% of total global CO₂ emissions in 2007. If we count UK sales of ship fuel, emissions appear to be similar to 1990 levels, at 6 million to 7 million tonnes of CO₂ per year. However, there is currently no international agreement on how to allocate emissions from international shipping to individual countries. Within the IMO, the UK is pressing for a global agreement that would treat international shipping as if it were a country in its own right. In 2008, the UK Climate Change Committee concluded that international shipping should not be included in the UK national carbon budget because of the difficulty of attributing and measuring the UK’s shipping emissions.

The long life span of ships makes changes to new, cleaner technologies unfeasible in the short to medium term. However in 2009 an IMO study identified various technologies for new and existing ships that could potentially reduce the emissions rate to between 25% and 75% below current levels. For example, solar cell technology, hydrogen fuel cells, sails/kites and improved ship aero/hydro-dynamics have all demonstrated potential to improve emissions. In 2008, the IMO agreed a work plan for discussing market-based measures, such as an emissions trading system, to address greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping; this would give a financial incentive for ship owners to improve the efficiency of their vessels, and the plan aims to indicate a preferred approach by the end of 2011.

Carbon capture and storage

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) in geological reservoirs is an important priority for both the UK and Scottish governments. Under the ‘Framework for the Development of Clean Coal’ announced by DECC on 9 November 2009, all new coal fuelled power stations must demonstrate CCS technology from the first day of operation on a minimum of 300 Megawatts (net) of their capacity. Under the same framework, from 2020, all new coal plant applications are expected to have full CCS operational from day one.

The UK Energy Act 2010 allows a levy on electricity generation to be charged in order to fund up to four CCS demonstrator projects across the UK. The first demonstration project, which will be the UK competition winner, should be announced in autumn 2010.
The Scottish Government is working closely with the Scottish Environment Protection Agency, Marine Scotland, Scottish Natural Heritage, Crown Estate, Health and Safety Executive as well as the UK Government to develop an integrated approach to the licensing and consents processes that will be required for any CCS project in Scotland.
In 2009, the Scottish CO₂ Storage Study highlighted the offshore potential of the North Sea Scottish sector to store CO₂ emissions for the next 200 years. A second study, also supported by the Scottish Government, will enable more detailed assessments of potential offshore storage capacity.

Biofuels

The EU Renewable Energy Directive was published on 5 June 2009. It includes an obligation on Member States to introduce mandatory requirements for biofuels and set a target for achieving 10% renewable energy in transport by 2020. Biofuels already accounted for about 2.6% of all UK road fuels in 2008/09. There are concerns surrounding the environmental and indirect impacts of land-based biofuels. Marine microalgae and nanoplankton may become important sources of biofuels through the production of biodiesel, ethanol, methane and hydrogen, by digestion or burning of seaweed biomass or by direct pyrolysis. However, the development of biofuels from marine resources is at an early stage, and production within the marine environment itself will have to satisfy sustainability constraints.